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ABSTRACT
This article examines the triangular relationship between Jews, Israel and Kurds with a view to unravelling the myths that revolved around them. It argues that the millenarian relationship between Kurdistan’s Jews and their non-Jewish neighbours notwithstanding, the myriad of ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ myths surrounding present-day Jewish-Israeli-Kurdish relations have flourished against the backdrop of a dearth of documented history of both Jewish and non-Jewish communities of pre-modern Kurdistan; the asymmetry of relations between a state actor – Israel, and a non-state ethno-national group – the Kurds; and the fact that both groups represent minorities within the larger Muslim milieu whose neighbours have delegitimized their right to national self-determination.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Prof. Bruce Maddy-Weitzman for his insightful remarks
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. See for example, Heehs, “Myth, History, and Theory”; Munz, “History and Myth”; Cassirer, The Myth of the State; Barthes, Mythologies; Glenwood Irons (eds.), Gender, Language and Myth; and Cruz and Frijhoff (eds.), Myth in History, History in Myth.
2. Munz, “History and Myth,” 1–2.
3. Cruz and Frijhoff (eds.), Myth in History, History in Myth, 1–2.
4. Munz, “History and Myth,” 2.
5. Ibid.
6. The differences between the Aramaic dialects were so great that at times it was difficult to communicate between them. Hopkins, Yehudey Kurdistan [The Jews of Kurdistan], 63.
7. Brauer maintains that the Jews of Kurdistan were not interested in history hence the lack of documents on this community. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, 56.
8. In the twentieth century there are attempts to fill the gap by employing the methods of oral history and writing about Kurdish culture and the Aramaic language. See for example, Zaken,Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains; Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews]; Yona, Encyclopedya shel Yehudey Kurdistan [Encyclopaedia of Kurdistani Jews]; and Yona Sabar, Midrashim Bearamit [Aramaic Midrashim]; Yona Sabar, Hayetzira Hasifrutit shel Yehudey Kurdistan [The Literature of the Kurdistani Jews].
9. Bengio, “Reclaiming National Identity.” According to another narrative the Kurdish history starts with the beginning of the Medes in 612. “Who are the Kurds,” Institut Kurde.
10. Aloian, “The Kurds in Ottoman Hungary”; and Izadi, The Kurds. According to Izadi King Solomon asked for 100 women, 241.
11. Kaplan, “Sons of Devils.”
12. 1 Kings, 11:3.
13. Chapter 8 in her book, Museums and the Shaping of Knowledge.
14. Portions of Syriac Christian communities continued to use it in their daily lives.
15. The Kurdish nation possesses three different ancient alphabets, Ekurd.net.
16. Binyamin, Sefer Mas`ot Yisrael [Book of Israel’s Travels], 30, 40.
17. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews], 122–5. It should be noted though that Binyamin belonged to the Yehuda kingdom which survived until their exile to Babylon in 586 BC.
18. Ibid., 12.
19. Yosefus Flavius, Qadmoniyut Hayehudim [Jewish Antiquities], 354.
20. Ibid., 356–8.
21. Ibid., 360.
22. It is assumed that Helena died before the destruction of the temple in the year 70 since Flavius mentions her burial in Jerusalem.
23. According to the scientists who carried out this test, the results suggest that the Jews and Kurds might have had common forefathers who had lived in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Traubman “Dimyon geneti rav” [strong genetic resemblance]. See also, Oppenheim quoted in Mamikonian, “Israel and the Kurds,” 381.
24. Mahir, The Kurds of Iraq, 10.
25. Munz, “History and Myth,” 2.
26. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews],12.
27. McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 6.
28. Binyamin, Sefer Mas`ot Yisrael [Book of Israel’s Travels], 40,29.
29. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, 57.
30. Ibid.
31. Toldot Yisrael [The history of Israel].
32. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, 35; and Marcus,“Yehudey Kurdistan” [The Jews of Kurdistan].
33. Binyamin, Sefer Mas`ot Yisrael [Book of Israel’s Travels], 40. It is noteworthy though that on p.24 he mentions the flexibility of the Kurdistani Rabbis illustrated by the permission given by one of them to a “grass widow” to get married, something which European Rabbis would not.
34. Yona, Encyclopedya shel Yehudey Kurdistan [Encyclopaedia of Kurdistani Jews].
35. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, 48.
36. Assasard, Usul al-`Aqa’id al-Barzaniyya [The Roots of Barzani Principles], 269–71.
37. “Misandur tetse tora udvar hashem mibarzan.” Relayed to the author by Kurdistani Jews.
38. Sefer Mas`ot Yisrael [Book of Israel’s Travels], 30.
39. Malul, “Harabanit Asenat Barzani ” [Rabbi ‘Asenat Barzani].
40. Bruinessen, “From Adela Khanun to Leyla,” 95–112. Bengio, “Game Changers.”
41. “Asenath Barzani, The Kurdish Project.” A Kurdish female scholar who is doing a research on her approached me to help her translate a poem by Asenath.
42. Assasard, Usul al-`Aqa’id al-Barzaniyya [The Roots of Barzani Principles], 104.
43. Yeğen, “‘Jewish-Kurds’ or the frontiers,” 213–15.
44. Zaken, Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains, 68–78.
45. Assasard, Usul al-`Aqa’id al-Barzaniyya [The Roots of Barzani Principles], 82–6, 104. However, by the beginning of the 21st century Some radical trends of Naqshbandiyya cooperated with ISIL.
46. Hopkins, Yehudey Kurdistan [The Jews of Kurdistan], 50.
47. Jews of Kurdistan.
48. Sykes, “The Kurdish Tribes,” 454.
49. Mar`i, Fusul min Ta’rih Yahud Kurdistan [Chapters from the Kurdistani Jews’ History], 176.
50. The number of Jews killed in the pogrom is c. 180. In 1949 the rich Jew Shafiq `Adas was hanged in Basra and in 1969, nine others in Baghdad square.
51. Zaken, Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains, 304–09. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews] Appendix, 15.
52. Kerkuki and Botani, “An introduction to Brauer’s book in Arabic version,” 26.
53. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, 71.
54. Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, 72. Yona, Encyclopedya shel Yehudey Kurdistan [Encyclopaedia of Kurdistani Jews], 39.
55. Sagnic, “A tale of two nations,” 6.
56. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews] Appendix, 26.
57. Binyamin, Sefer Mas`ot Yisrael [Book of Israel’s Travels[, 25,35–9.
58. Zaken, Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains.
59. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews].
60. McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 52.
61. Zaken, Jewish Subjects and Their Tribal Chieftains, 9–17.
62. Mar`i, Fusul min Ta’rih Yahud Kurdistan [Chapters from the Kurdistani Jews’ History], 176.
63. Zahrab, “Man qal inna Kurdistan [Who said that Kurdistan].
64. Sabar, My Father’s Paradise.
65. Havaad Lemaavak beretsah `am [The committee for the struggle against genocide].
66. For details on this organisation, see https://www.springsofhope.foundation/.
67. “Levy honored for ‘Peshmerga’.”
68. Boguslaw, “How Jewish organizations are responding.”
69. The Forward (New York).
70. “Prominent US Jewish expresses ‘horror and anguish’“; Boguslaw, “How Jewish organizations are responding.”
72. See for example, Israel-Kurd. July 2010.
73. Odenheimer. ‘Rav mekher bekurdistan’ [Best-seller in Kurdistan].
74. Smith and Shadarevian, Wilting in the Kurdish Sun.
75. The Times of Israel.
76. Binyamin, Sefer Mas`ot Yisrael [Book of Israel’s Travels[, 28, 34.
77. US to donate additional &500,000.
78. Public Library of US diplomacy.
79. “Kurdistan Region Asayish closes down.”
80. Yochi Vayntrob, “Shlihuto shel Reuven Shiloah” [Reuven Shiloah’s mission].
81. McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 471, 474.
82. Ismet Sherif Vanly, Min Mudhakkirat Ismet [Ismet’s Memoirs], 38–40. My thanks to Bayar Dosky for providing me this manuscript.
83. See for example, Bengio, Mered Hakurdim Be`Iraq [The Kurdish Rebellion in `Iraq]; Nakdimon, Tikva Shekarsa [A Hopeless hope]; Tzafrir, Ana Kurdi [I am Kurd].
84. Bar, “American-Israeli businessman denies,” Israel Hayyom.
85. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews], Appendix, 15.
86. Ben Ya`qov, Qehilot Yehudey Kurdistan [The Communities of Kurdistani Jews], Appendix, 16.
87. Nakdimon, Tikva Shekarsa [A Hopeless hope], 178–80.
88. Zahrab, “Man qal inna Kurdistan?” [Who said that Kurdistan?].
89. Alpher, Periphery.
90. Bengio, The Kurds of Iraq, 76.
91. Nakdimon, Tikva Shekarsa [A Hopeless hope], 9.
92. Interview with Zamir Shem Tov, 18 May 2019.
93. Radio Israel, 29 September-BBC, 1 October 1980.
94. Barrak, Mustafa Al-Barzani, 221.
95. Liga,” Israel in a transforming Middle East.”
96. Sheppard, Reed and Raval, “Israel turns to Kurds”; “Iraqi Kurds secretly selling oil.”
97. Liga, “Israel in a transforming Middle East.”
98. Yossi Melman “Nippagesh baloby” [We will meet in the lobby].
99. Reported to the author by an Israeli official who should stay anonymous.
100. Liga, “Israel in a transforming Middle East; Yossi Melman “Nippagesh baloby [We will meet in the lobby]; and Bengio, “Israel and the Kurds,” The American Interest.
101. Cruz and Frijhoff, eds. Myth in History, History in Myth, 3.
102. Hilal, “Dirasa `an mhafazat” [A study about a province], 77, 89–92.
103. Al-Durra, Al-Qadiyya Al-Kurdiyya [The Kurdish Problem], 387–88.
104. Sa`di, “Awwal man wasafa Kurdistan” [The first person who described Kurdistan].
105. The Time of Israel, 17 September 2017.
106. “Israel’s Mossad had hand.”
107. “US seeks ‘new Israel’ in region.”
108. “Iran spoiled a plot.”
109. The Arabic sources were quoted by Zahrab, “Man qal inna Kurdistan?” [Who said that Kurdistan?].
110. Bengio, “Israel and the Kurds.”
111. Lynfield, “Why do state-seeking Palestinians.”
112. Muhammad, “Arba` Isra’iliyyat ukhra” [Four other Israels].
113. Ismaeel, “Century-old Kurdish statehood.”
114. See note 88 above.
115. Ibid.
116. Van Wilgenburg, “Not all Iraqi Kurds.”
117. Zisser, “Nipputzan shel ashlayot” [The destruction of illusions].
118. Bengio: The Kurds of Iraq, 73.
119. Vardi, “The hypocrisy of Israel’s alliance.”
120. Such rumours were reported to the author by Kurdish friends in the KRI.
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Ofra Bengio
Ofra Bengio is Professor Emerita of Middle Eastern Studies at Tel-Aviv University and a Senior Research Fellow at the Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies.